{"id":54618,"date":"2025-02-17T11:07:17","date_gmt":"2025-02-17T11:07:17","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.innovationnewsnetwork.com\/?p=54618"},"modified":"2025-02-17T11:07:39","modified_gmt":"2025-02-17T11:07:39","slug":"unravelling-the-secrets-of-the-core-of-a-thermonuclear-fusion-reactor-with-nuclear-emission-diagnostics","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.innovationnewsnetwork.com\/unravelling-the-secrets-of-the-core-of-a-thermonuclear-fusion-reactor-with-nuclear-emission-diagnostics\/54618\/","title":{"rendered":"Unravelling the secrets of the core of a thermonuclear fusion reactor with nuclear emission diagnostics"},"content":{"rendered":"

Researchers from Milan, Italy, reveal the fundamental properties of matter at 150 million degrees by measuring its intrinsic radiation.<\/h2>\n

Nuclear fusion is the process that powers the stars. It relies on the high amount of energy that is released when some light nuclei combine into more tightly bound heavier nuclei. The latter share the excess energy described by the famous Einstein\u2019s relation E=\u0394mc\u00b2, where \u0394m is the differences between the masses of the heavy and light nuclei and c is the speed of light. One nuclear fusion reaction releases, on average, one million times more energy than a conventional combustion reaction based on fossil fuel, and it is thus not surprising that this is the fundamental process that powers the Universe.<\/p>\n

On Earth, the most promising route towards achieving nuclear fusion for energy production is to confine a fully ionised gas, called plasma, into a sophisticated magnetic cage named tokamak<\/a>.\u2077 Certain challenging conditions need to be met simultaneously to exploit nuclear fusion for energy production. One condition is that the core of the plasma reaches a temperature of about 150 million degrees, which is roughly ten times higher than the temperature in the core of the Sun. Another is that the density of the plasma is high enough to ensure that enough fuel undergoes fusion. A final one is that the energy released by such a process stays in the system long enough. This is to ensure that the conditions required for the fusion burn to keep going are maintained by the system itself with minimal energy input from the outside.<\/p>\n

Measuring the temperature and, more generally, the properties of the core of a fusion reactor is thus a fundamental task for the deployment of nuclear fusion as an energy source on Earth. But how do we make measurements of an object that is expected to be at a temperature of 150 million degrees? We certainly cannot employ a solid probe as the thermometer, as this would be most likely destroyed by the plasma itself!<\/p>\n

The key to this task is to realise that fusion plasma is a very intense source of electromagnetic and nuclear radiation. This includes neutrons, which are the energy vectors of the process and are born from the fusion reaction themselves, as well as gamma-rays<\/a>, which can be spontaneously produced by fusion, by some other nuclear reactions occurring predominantly in the core or from the slowing down of fast electrons in some off-normal scenarios.<\/p>\n

The neutron and gamma-ray diagnostics group of the University of Milano-Bicocca and the Institute for Plasma Science and Technology, both based in Milan, Italy, are world experts in the development of instruments for measurements of neutron and gamma-ray radiation from magnetically confined fusion plasmas and their application to unravel the secrets of the core of a thermonuclear fusion reactor.<\/p>\n

Measuring neutron emission from the plasma core<\/h3>\n

The first generation of thermonuclear fusion reactors will use deuterium and tritium, two isotopes of hydrogen, as the fuel. In the fusion process between one nucleus of deuterium and one nucleus of tritium, a neutron is released, predominantly from the core, and this has an energy that depends on the properties of the reacting nuclei, for example, their temperature and relative abundance.\u00b2<\/p>\n

In other words, similar to the spectrum of the light emitted by a distant star, the energy spectrum of the fusion-born neutrons is a fingerprint of the properties of the plasma fuel ions that determine fusion. Measuring neutrons is, however, a non-trivial task.<\/p>\n

Being uncharged, neutrons are not easily caught, as they only occasionally undergo interactions with matter. Moreover, when they do, they might release just a fraction of their energy into the detector, complicating the analysis.<\/p>\n

A significant task towards the goal of measuring neutrons released by thermonuclear fusion is to ensure that proper spectrometers are designed and built, with fine details that often depend on the specific application. For these reasons, neutron instruments can look rather different among themselves. For some applications, small detectors that can be easily integrated into the complex engineering environment of a tokamak can be deployed. These can be inorganic scintillators\u2075 or semiconductors, such as single crystal diamond detectors\u2076 grown synthetically with a technique similar to that recently deployed in the jewellery industry.<\/p>\n

When broadband applications or especially high sensitivity to small changes in the fuel properties are required, more complex instruments must be designed and built, which are, however, more demanding to integrate into a fusion reactor. Examples are the time of flight\u2078 or magnetic proton recoil\u00b9 instruments, as shown in Fig. 1 for the EAST and JET tokamaks<\/a>, respectively.<\/p>\n

\"thermonuclear
Fig. 1 (left) The MPRu, MagneticPproton Recoil Upgrade, neutron spectrometer at the Joint European Torus (JET) in Culham, Oxfordshire, United Kingdom; (right) The TOFED (Time Of Flight Enhanced Diagnostics) instrument at the Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) in Hefei, Anhui province, China<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Gamma-rays and energetic particles<\/h3>\n

While most of the ions of a thermonuclear fusion reactor are at equilibrium at temperatures around 150 million degrees, a minority fraction of particles has an energy much higher than that. These are fast ions produced by the fusion reactions themselves or introduced by the auxiliary heating systems that are required to externally control the fusion burn. In some off-normal scenarios, energetic electrons \u2013 dubbed runaway electrons \u2013 are also generated and, if not detected and mitigated, may significantly damage the walls of the vacuum chamber where the plasma is contained in a fusion device.<\/p>\n

All these energetic minorities must also be diagnosed, but they are more difficult to detect compared with the majority of fuel ions. In some sense, this is like looking for a needle in a haystack, with the additional complication that the haystack is now at 150 million degrees!<\/p>\n

Fortunately, energetic particles in a fusion device also emit radiation, most often high-energy electromagnetic radiation. These are known as gamma-rays\u2074 and are due to either some other nuclear reactions than the main nuclear fusion occurring in the plasma, or the so-called bremsstrahlung radiation predominantly emitted by the runaway electrons.<\/p>\n

Depending on the particle type and properties, the energy and intensity of the gamma rays produced by the plasma are different. The goal of the measurement is, in this case, to separate and identify the different gamma-ray energy groups that make up the overall emission and, by their detailed analysis, infer the properties of the energetic particles that were responsible for their production. As for neutrons, gamma rays interact only occasionally with matter and often release only a fraction of their full energy into the detector. This provides a further complication to the analysis, in addition to the intrinsic complexity of the emission resulting from several processes, not just one type of fusion reaction, as for neutrons.<\/p>\n

On the other hand, gamma-ray detection requires comparatively simpler instruments than neutron spectrometers, for example, inorganic scintillators\u00b3 of medium dimensions (see Fig. 2), whose design must, however, still be customised depending on the measurement conditions at each device.<\/p>\n

\"\"
Fig. 2: A younger version of the author prepares a gamma-ray spectrometer for measurements at the ASDEX Upgrade tokamak in Garching, Bavaria, Germany<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Nuclear diagnostics in the burning plasma era<\/h3>\n

The next step towards the final goal of energy production by nuclear fusion in tokamaks is to generate burning plasmas. This is a special condition where the fusion burn is primarily maintained by the heat released by the fusion reaction, as necessary in a fusion reactor, rather than by the external heating systems.<\/p>\n

Several machines are currently being built to achieve and study such a regime. The most important projects are perhaps ITER in Europe, SPARC in the United States and BEST in China.<\/p>\n

In the burning regime, plasma will be an even more intense source of radiation, suggesting that neutron and gamma-ray diagnostics will have a primary role in unravelling the intricated, non-linear phenomena that determine the dynamics of the fundamentally self-organised burning plasma of a fusion reactor.<\/p>\n

The Milan neutron and gamma-ray diagnostics group are at the forefront of the research on this fascinating new regime through the design and development of neutron and gamma-ray spectrometers for the most important burning plasma devices under construction.<\/p>\n

Moreover, a young generation of scientists is being trained at the PhD and post-doctoral level to pioneer the use of such nuclear instruments in the uncharted territory of a burning plasma and, perhaps, to contribute to the discovery of the fundamental laws that determine the behaviour of a reactor relevant plasma for the future of energy production on Earth.<\/p>\n

References<\/h4>\n
    \n
  1. Ericsson, G., & al. (2001). Neutron emission spectroscopy at JET\u2014Results from the magnetic proton recoil spectrometer. Rev. Sci. Instrum<\/em>.,
    \n72, 759\u2013766.<\/li>\n
  2. Eriksson, J., & al. (2019). Measuring fast ions in fusion plasmas with neutron diagnostics at JET. Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion<\/em>, 61 014027.<\/li>\n
  3. Nocente, M., & al. (2013). High Resolution Gamma Ray Spectroscopy at MHz Counting Rates With LaBr3 Scintillators for Fusion Plasma Applications. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci<\/em>., 1408 – 1415.<\/li>\n
  4. Nocente, M., & al. (2020). MeV range particle physics studies in tokamak plasmas using gamma-ray spectroscopy. Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion<\/em>, 62 014015.<\/li>\n
  5. Nocente, M., & al. (2024). COSMONAUT: A COmpact spectrometer for measurements of neutrons at the ASDEX upgrade tokamak. Rev. Sci. Instrum<\/em>., 95, 083501.<\/li>\n
  6. Rigamonti, D., & al. (2024). The single crystal diamond-based diagnostic suite of the JET tokamak for 14 MeV neutron counting and spectroscopy measurements in DT plasmas. Nucl. Fusion<\/em>, 64 016016.<\/li>\n
  7. Tischler, K. (2024). Fusion as the future of baseload energy: Powering a decarbonised world. Retrieved from Innovation News Network:
    \nhttps:\/\/www.innovationnewsnetwork.com\/fusion-as-the-future-of-baseload-energy-powering-a-decarbonised-world\/52112\/<\/li>\n
  8. Zhang, X., & al. (2014). Diagnosing NB plasmas on the EAST tokamak with a new time-of-flight neutron spectrometer. Nucl. Fusion<\/em>, 54 104008<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    Please note, this article will also appear in the 21st edition of our\u00a0quarterly publication<\/a>.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

    Measuring the properties of the core of a thermonuclear fusion reactor is fundamental for the deployment of fusion as an energy source.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":22,"featured_media":54619,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[24204],"tags":[529,21963,24647],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"\nUncovering the secrets of a thermonuclear fusion reactor's core<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Measuring the properties of the core of a thermonuclear fusion reactor is fundamental for the deployment of fusion as an energy source.\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" 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